“Eighteen-Hundred and Froze to Death!”: The Wicked Weather of 1816

GREENWICH, N.Y. — 1816 may not be a year that comes to mind when thinking of historical events. Years like 1776 or 1941 are likely more recognizable to Americans. However, 1816 was a notorious year in the United States and the around world because of its weather. Abnormally cold temperatures and chaotic weather patterns earned it the nickname “The Year Without a Summer,” and caused disturbances to American agriculture and society.

The story of 1816 began a year earlier and thousands of miles away in the Pacific Ocean. On April 5, 1815 on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia a volcano called Mount Tambora erupted. Mount Tambora was the largest volcanic eruption in recorded history. To give a comparison the blast was about 100 times larger than the eruption of Mount St. Helens in Washington in 1980. Tambora’s eruption rained lava, fire, and pumice on the island and surrounding regions. It created tsunamis that hit islands miles away. The blast sent tons of ash, dust, and sulfur dioxide up to 20 miles into the air entering the earth’s stratosphere (Klingaman, p. 15). All of these particles thrown into the air would end up being the source of the climatic changes that would affect the world the following year.

When the ash and gases were thrust into the air reactions created an immense aerosol cloud of sulfate particles which was blown across the equator. Eventually the cloud drifted northward and southward catching the jet streams and covering the earth. The aerosol cloud had the effect of cooling global temperatures by reflecting and scattering sunlight which would otherwise reach the earth’s surface (Klingaman, p.19). The earth’s temperature cooled about two degrees as a result.

The effects of this cooling were not immediately experienced in the United States. The winter of 1815-1816 was one of the mildest in the previous decades with limited amounts of snow and warmer temperatures. Some places received snow in April, but it quickly melted and planting began across the country (Klingaman, p.30).

However, at the end of April places began experiencing a series of cold waves that would cover regions throughout the year. In early May, New England states and New York received several inches of snow and “black frost” that froze planted crops and killed the buds on trees. The cold then drifted south hitting places like Virginia and Tennessee harming cotton crops (Klingaman, p. 48-49).

These cold waves recurred throughout the year and created jarring temperature changes when they arrived. For instance, a large low-pressure system went through New England in the first week of June. Parts of the region were experiencing hot temperatures in the 80s and 90s as readings from June 5^th reported. Two days later temperatures had plummeted to the freezing mark. Higher elevations had snow (places in Vermont received nearly 20 inches) and waterways froze again. This violent change in conditions had dire consequences again destroying crops. Various places reported birds freezing to death or seeking shelter in barns or houses of all kinds. Recently shorn sheep froze to death too without their wooly coats (Klingaman, p.62). Yet the weather warmed up again the following week returning to more normal temperatures.

However, the warmth would not last as temperatures dropped again. On July 4^th a clockmaker in Plymouth, Connecticut named Chauncey Jerome wrote in his diary that he saw a group of men playing a game of quoits in heavy overcoats adding, “…a body could not feel very patriotic in such weather.” (Klingaman, p.104). A woman in Keene, New Hampshire named Hannah Dawes Newcomb described the weather events in her area throughout the year in her diary. In an entry on July 6^th, she wrote, “Weather continues very cold – all nature appears encircled in gloom – Grass very thin. Corn so backward it does not appear probably there will be food sufficient for man or Beast. Our only hope arises from the promise of seed time and Harvest. We daily keep fire in the parlor.”

As the cause of the unusual weather was unknown at the time, Americans had many theories as to the cause of it. The most popular was sunspot activity. A haze created by the cloud allowed for the spots to be more visible to the naked eye. Other theories included an earthquake that occurred in the Midwest and deforestation (Klingaman, p. 78-82).

Many Americans looked to heaven for explanations as well. The majority of Americans at the time came from a Christian background and believed in God or “Providence.” Many viewed the weather events as God’s displeasure with them or at least an attempt to get their attention about something. As a result, church attendance increased during 1816 and subsequent years. Religious revivals became more frequent too as Americans sought to restore the normal weather events through repentance and reform (p. 83-86).

The United States was not the only place to experience the weather changes. Parts of Europe saw cold and very wet conditions. John Quincy Adams, who was living in London serving as U.S. Ambassador to Britain, consistently wrote about the dreary and cold conditions all year. Switzerland and other places faced severe famine. As the year progressed riots for food and other unrest spread throughout the region. Places in Asia similarly faced drought and other natural disasters.

The conditions had a psychological effect on people. The up-and-down nature of the weather and cycle of planting, killing frosts, and replanting was emotionally draining for farmers. The aerosol cloud created bizarre red, orange, and purple sunsets in places, or obscured the light of the sun or moon at times creating scenes which probably looked very eerie. The dark conditions can be seen in art and literature from the time most famously in Mary Shelley’s book Frankenstein which was inspired by the author’s stay at a gloomy Geneva, Switzerland in the summer of 1816. The conditions also likely affected Americans’ view of the nation’s leadership. In the November 1816 elections 70% of incumbent congressmen in the House of Representatives were voted out of office, a record which still holds today for the largest amount of turnover in Congress in a single election.

As the summer continued drought became an issue especially in the South. Tobacco and corn crops were reported to be stunted. In northern states first cuttings of hay were very light and of poor quality (Klingaman, p.138-139). Forage for livestock was minimal and farmers began to cull animals since they knew they would not be able to feed them. As the year progressed this would be more frequent leading to a drop in meat prices. Yet, growers persisted planting again to try and get some kind of crop.

However, in mid-August another cold front came in bringing freezing temperatures. Frosts killed corn crops and vegetables in many places. Most of New England lost its corn crop as ¾ of it was destroyed. Many New England farmers decided to cut their losses at that point harvesting whatever they had left and plan ways to make it through the winter. The frosts dipped south too harming drought inflicted fields in places like Virginia and South Carolina (Klingaman, p.155, 159). The weather kept people wondering as one Boston newspaper wrote, “It is believed that no person can recollect a summer so inconsistent and fluctuating.” (Klingaman, p. 175)

Throughout the fall frosts continued at various times and farmers had to contend with wildfires in places as well. Some were caused by drought but others were intentionally set to clear land, which was a common practice in the fall. But, due to the dry conditions fires got out of control and smoke limited visibility in many places in the country. As the small harvests came in across the country farmers had to make tough decisions on whether to consume reserves of crops like corn, or save it for seed for next year (Klingaman, p.195-198).

In response to the poor harvests and frigid weather many decided to leave. Eastern regions were becoming more and more crowded with less farmable land available for use. The conditions of 1816 were “a final straw” for many farmers and they decided to go west to the new states of Ohio and Indiana for a fresh start. Packing all their belongings families made the long, arduous journey westward on early America’s treacherous roads after catching what was called “Ohio Fever.” Results were dramatic as Ohio’s population increased from 230,760 in 1810 to over 400,000 in 1817. Similarly, Indiana was home to 24,500 settlers in 1810 and by 1817 was around 100,000 (Klingaman, p.248).

For those that remained many turned to foraging as the poor harvests limited food supplies. Families collected plants like wild turnips and nettles. In New England there were reports of people eating raccoons and pigeons. Fish was also became a common supplement to the diet of people who lived further inland. For instance, in Vermont farmers got creative trading maple syrup for mackerel. For some in the state 1816 became known as “The Mackerel Year” since it was eaten so frequently.

Conditions finally started to improve in the spring of 1817. Throughout 1817 the Tambora cloud slowly dissipated allowing for a gradual restoration of the world’s temperatures. While there were some anomalies throughout the year it was much more average weather-wise and by 1818 conditions and temperatures around the world returned to normal. Yet, the Year Without a Summer had consequences around the world. In the United States, where most people were subsistence farmers, it created a year of hardship and scarcity that would be remembered for generations afterward. It led to a mass migration westward for many farmers starting a trend that would continue. It also rattled society to a degree as people contended with hunger and uncertainty.

Chandler Hansen grew up and lives in Easton, NY. He is a graduate of Gordon College where he earned a bachelor’s degree in History. He serves as a writer and editor for Morning Ag Clips.